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Rajasthan GK Questions and Answers (Rajasthan GK MCQ)

389 practice questions on Rajasthan General Knowledge for RPSC, Rajasthan Police and Rajasthan Patwari, with answers; most also have an explanation or a worked solution. Try each one before you open its answer.

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  1. Q.201

    From which headworks on the Sutlej does the Gang Canal draw its water?

    1. A Harike barrage
    2. B Hussainiwala (Ferozepur) headworks
    3. C Ropar headworks
    4. D Nangal dam
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Hussainiwala (Ferozepur) headworks

    The Gang Canal takes off from the Ferozepur (Hussainiwala) headworks on the Sutlej in Punjab and enters Rajasthan in Sri Ganganagar district. The Indira Gandhi Canal, by contrast, draws from Harike.

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  2. Q.202

    Neemuch, whose sepoys rose against the British on 3 June 1857 and whose revolt spread into Mewar, is now in which state?

    1. A Rajasthan
    2. B Gujarat
    3. C Madhya Pradesh
    4. D Uttar Pradesh
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Madhya Pradesh

    Neemuch was a British cantonment on the Mewar border and is today a district headquarters in Madhya Pradesh. Its sepoys rose a few days after those at Nasirabad (28 May 1857).

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  3. Q.203

    The Karni Mata temple, famous for the thousands of rats (kabas) that live inside it, is located at Deshnok in which district?

    1. A Jodhpur
    2. B Nagaur
    3. C Churu
    4. D Bikaner
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Bikaner

    Deshnok is about 30 km south of Bikaner city. Karni Mata was the family deity of the Bikaner and Jodhpur Rathores; Rao Bika is said to have founded Bikaner with her blessing.

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  4. Q.204

    The 'Shravak Pratikraman Sutra Churni', an early illustrated manuscript of the Mewar school painted in 1260 during the reign of Tej Singh, was painted at which place?

    1. A Ahar (Aghatpur)
    2. B Chawand
    3. C Nathdwara
    4. D Devgarh
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Ahar (Aghatpur)

    This Jain manuscript was painted at Ahar (ancient Aghatpur) near Udaipur in 1260 and marks the early phase of the Mewar school. Chawand became a centre of Mewar painting much later, under Amar Singh I.

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  5. Q.205

    In the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), Prithviraj Chauhan III of Ajmer was defeated by which invader?

    1. A Mahmud of Ghazni
    2. B Muhammad Ghori
    3. C Qutbuddin Aibak
    4. D Iltutmish
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Muhammad Ghori

    Muhammad Ghori lost the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 but defeated Prithviraj III in 1192, opening north India to Turkish rule. Aibak was Ghori's general, not the commander.

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  6. Q.206

    Mihir Bhoja, the greatest Gurjara-Pratihara king, assumed which title that also appears on his coins?

    1. A Rajamartanda
    2. B Hindu Suratrana
    3. C Adivaraha
    4. D Vikramaditya
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Adivaraha

    Mihir Bhoja, a devotee of Vishnu, took the title Adivaraha, and his 'Adivaraha dramma' coins show the boar incarnation. Rajamartanda is the name of works (on yoga, medicine and law) attributed to the Paramara king Bhoja of Malwa.

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  7. Q.207

    The morchang, often heard with folk songs of western Rajasthan, is best described as which kind of instrument?

    1. A A long brass trumpet
    2. B A double-headed barrel drum
    3. C A small iron jaw harp held between the lips and plucked
    4. D A bowed fiddle with a coconut-shell body
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) A small iron jaw harp held between the lips and plucked

    The morchang is a small metal instrument held against the teeth or lips; its tongue is plucked with a finger while the mouth shapes the sound. The coconut-shell fiddle describes the ravanhatha.

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  8. Q.208

    Which Arab merchant-traveller, writing in 851 CE, described the Pratihara king of 'Juzr' as having a strong cavalry and as the greatest foe of the Arabs?

    1. A Al-Masudi
    2. B Ibn Battuta
    3. C Al-Biruni
    4. D Sulaiman
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Sulaiman

    Sulaiman wrote during Mihir Bhoja's reign and praised the king's cavalry and the security of his realm. Al-Masudi came later, in 915-16, under Mahipala.

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  9. Q.209

    Rampura Agucha, one of India's major zinc-lead mines operated by Hindustan Zinc, is in which district?

    1. A Rajsamand
    2. B Ajmer
    3. C Chittorgarh
    4. D Bhilwara
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Bhilwara

    Rampura Agucha lies in Bhilwara district. Rajpura-Dariba and Sindesar Khurd, other zinc-lead mines, are in Rajsamand district.

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  10. Q.210

    Who succeeded Mohan Lal Sukhadia as Chief Minister of Rajasthan in 1971?

    1. A Haridev Joshi
    2. B Barkatullah Khan
    3. C Jagannath Pahadia
    4. D Bhairon Singh Shekhawat
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Barkatullah Khan

    Barkatullah Khan became Chief Minister in July 1971 and died in office in 1973, after which Haridev Joshi took over. Bhairon Singh Shekhawat first became Chief Minister in 1977.

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  11. Q.211

    Blue pottery, a craft of Persian origin that uses no clay and is fired only once, is a famous handicraft of which city?

    1. A Jaipur
    2. B Bikaner
    3. C Jodhpur
    4. D Alwar
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Jaipur

    Blue pottery is the signature craft of Jaipur, made from quartz powder, glass and gum; Kripal Singh Shekhawat revived it. Bikaner is known for Usta (camel-hide gold work).

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  12. Q.212

    Jaipur was painted pink in 1876 to welcome the Prince of Wales during the reign of which ruler?

    1. A Sawai Ram Singh II
    2. B Sawai Jai Singh II
    3. C Sawai Madho Singh II
    4. D Sawai Man Singh II
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Sawai Ram Singh II

    Sawai Ram Singh II had the city painted in a terracotta pink, the colour of hospitality, for the visit of the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII). Sawai Jai Singh II had founded Jaipur in 1727.

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  13. Q.213

    At which place did Jambhoji found the Bishnoi sect in 1485?

    1. A Mukam
    2. B Pipasar
    3. C Samrathal Dhora
    4. D Khejarli
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Samrathal Dhora

    Jambhoji founded the sect on the sand dune of Samrathal Dhora in Bikaner district; nearby Mukam, where his samadhi lies, hosts the main Bishnoi fair.

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  14. Q.214

    Which 8th-century Gurjara-Pratihara ruler is praised in the Gwalior prashasti for repelling the Arab armies advancing from Sindh?

    1. A Nagabhata I
    2. B Mihir Bhoja
    3. C Vatsaraja
    4. D Mahendrapala I
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Nagabhata I

    Nagabhata I (c. 730-760), founder of the imperial Pratihara line, checked the Arab incursions from Sindh. Vatsaraja came later and took part in the tripartite struggle.

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  15. Q.215

    Which city of Rajasthan is known as the 'Granite City' for its granite quarrying and processing?

    1. A Sirohi
    2. B Barmer
    3. C Pali
    4. D Jalore
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Jalore

    Jalore has extensive granite deposits and many cutting and polishing units, which earned it the name Granite City.

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  16. Q.216

    Thewa art, in which delicate designs cut from gold sheet are fused onto coloured glass, is a traditional craft of which town of Rajasthan?

    1. A Banswara
    2. B Kishangarh
    3. C Pratapgarh
    4. D Nathdwara
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Pratapgarh

    Thewa work is the hereditary craft of the Raj Soni family of Pratapgarh in southern Rajasthan. Kishangarh is known for its school of painting.

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  17. Q.217

    Consider the following statements: 1. Kota became a state separate from Bundi in 1631, with Madho Singh as its first ruler. 2. Rao Surjan Hada of Bundi held Ranthambore against Akbar in 1569 and never accepted Mughal service. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    1. A Only 1
    2. B Only 2
    3. C Both 1 and 2
    4. D Neither 1 nor 2
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Only 1

    Only statement 1 is correct. Shah Jahan granted Kota to Madho Singh, son of Rao Ratan of Bundi, in 1631, whereas Rao Surjan surrendered Ranthambore to Akbar in 1569 and entered Mughal service.

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  18. Q.218

    Arrange these Gurjara-Pratihara rulers in chronological order: (A) Vatsaraja (B) Mihir Bhoja (C) Nagabhata I (D) Nagabhata II

    1. A A, C, D, B
    2. B C, D, A, B
    3. C C, A, D, B
    4. D A, C, B, D
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) C, A, D, B

    Nagabhata I (8th century) was followed in time by Vatsaraja, then his son Nagabhata II, and then Nagabhata II's grandson Mihir Bhoja (c. 836-885).

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  19. Q.219

    Who was the first Speaker of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly, constituted after the 1952 elections?

    1. A Ram Niwas Mirdha
    2. B Tikaram Paliwal
    3. C Mohan Lal Sukhadia
    4. D Narottam Lal Joshi
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Narottam Lal Joshi

    Narottam Lal Joshi was elected the first Speaker of the Rajasthan Vidhan Sabha in 1952. Tikaram Paliwal led the first elected government as Chief Minister.

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  20. Q.220

    Which freedom fighter, a leader of the Sirohi Praja Mandal, is popularly known as 'Rajasthan ka Gandhi'?

    1. A Bhogilal Pandya
    2. B Gokulbhai Bhatt
    3. C Jamnalal Bajaj
    4. D Manikya Lal Verma
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Gokulbhai Bhatt

    Gokulbhai Bhatt led the Sirohi Praja Mandal and, for his Gandhian simplicity and constructive work, came to be called 'Rajasthan ka Gandhi'. Jamnalal Bajaj, another Gandhian, was called Gandhi's 'fifth son'.

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  21. Q.221

    Who commanded the Mughal army against Maharana Pratap at the Battle of Haldighati (18 June 1576)?

    1. A Raja Todar Mal
    2. B Man Singh of Amber
    3. C Bairam Khan
    4. D Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Man Singh of Amber

    Akbar sent Man Singh I of Amber (with Asaf Khan) against Pratap at Haldighati. Bairam Khan had died in 1561, long before the battle.

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  22. Q.222

    Bisalpur dam in Tonk district, a major source of drinking water for Jaipur and Ajmer, is built on which river?

    1. A Mashi
    2. B Banas
    3. C Dai
    4. D Chambal
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Banas

    Bisalpur dam is on the Banas in Tonk district and supplies drinking water to Jaipur, Ajmer and Tonk. The Mashi and Dai are smaller tributaries of the Banas.

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  23. Q.223

    Veer Durgadas Rathore is celebrated in Marwar history for protecting which infant prince from Aurangzeb and restoring him to the throne of Jodhpur?

    1. A Rao Chandrasen
    2. B Jaswant Singh
    3. C Rao Maldeo
    4. D Ajit Singh
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Ajit Singh

    After Maharaja Jaswant Singh died in 1678, Aurangzeb tried to seize his posthumous son Ajit Singh; Durgadas smuggled the infant out of Delhi and fought for decades until Ajit Singh regained Jodhpur in 1707.

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  24. Q.224

    The Jantar Mantar at Jaipur, an astronomical observatory built by Sawai Jai Singh II, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in which year?

    1. A 1985
    2. B 2013
    3. C 2019
    4. D 2010
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) 2010

    Jantar Mantar Jaipur was inscribed in 2010. 1985 is Keoladeo, 2013 the Hill Forts and 2019 the walled city of Jaipur.

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  25. Q.225

    Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari, the physicist born in Udaipur in 1906, chaired which national commission during 1964-66?

    1. A Education Commission
    2. B States Reorganisation Commission
    3. C Official Language Commission
    4. D Finance Commission
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Education Commission

    The Kothari Commission (Education Commission, 1964-66) recommended a common school system and the 10+2+3 pattern. Kothari also served as Chairman of the University Grants Commission.

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  26. Q.226

    Ranthambore National Park, one of the original Project Tiger reserves of 1973, lies in which district?

    1. A Kota
    2. B Sawai Madhopur
    3. C Bundi
    4. D Tonk
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Sawai Madhopur

    Ranthambore in Sawai Madhopur district surrounds the 10th-century Ranthambore fort. Mukundra Hills tiger reserve lies in Kota and Ramgarh Vishdhari in Bundi.

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  27. Q.227

    Gavari, a ritual dance-drama performed for about forty days beginning the day after Raksha Bandhan, with stories centred on Shiva and Parvati, is performed by which tribe of Mewar?

    1. A Bhil
    2. B Saharia
    3. C Garasia
    4. D Meena
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Bhil

    Gavari (also called Rai) is performed by Bhil men of the Udaipur-Rajsamand region in Bhadrapad, and all roles, including female ones, are played by men. The Garasia tribe is known for the Walar dance.

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  28. Q.228

    The name of the Harappan site Kalibangan in Hanumangarh district literally means what?

    1. A Black bangles
    2. B Copper town
    3. C Red mound
    4. D Ash hill
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    Correct answer: (A) Black bangles

    'Kali bangan' means black bangles, a name taken from the many black bangle fragments found on its mounds. The site lies on the left (southern) bank of the now-dry Ghaggar.

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  29. Q.229

    Who is called the 'Panna Dhai of Marwar' for her part in saving the infant Ajit Singh from Aurangzeb's custody?

    1. A Karnavati
    2. B Hadi Rani
    3. C Umade
    4. D Gora Dhay
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Gora Dhay

    Gora Dhay is said to have left her own son in place of the infant prince so that he could be smuggled out of Delhi; Ajit Singh later honoured her with a chhatri in Jodhpur.

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  30. Q.230

    Which folk dance of Rajasthan, performed by women who circle gracefully in flowing ghaghras at festivals and weddings, is often called the 'soul' of Rajasthani folk dances?

    1. A Chakri
    2. B Bhavai
    3. C Gair
    4. D Ghoomar
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Ghoomar

    Ghoomar takes its name from the circling (ghoomna) movement of the dancers and is regarded as the soul of Rajasthan's folk dances. Gair, by contrast, is a men's dance performed with sticks.

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  31. Q.231

    Rajasthan shares about 1,070 km of international border (Radcliffe Line) with Pakistan. Which of the following districts does NOT touch this border?

    1. A Sri Ganganagar
    2. B Barmer
    3. C Jaisalmer
    4. D Jalore
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Jalore

    Only four districts touch Pakistan: Sri Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer (longest stretch) and Barmer. Jalore lies south of Barmer and borders Gujarat, not Pakistan.

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  32. Q.232

    The Sitabari fair near Kelwara in Baran district is known as the 'Kumbh' of which tribe?

    1. A Saharia
    2. B Bhil
    3. C Garasia
    4. D Meena
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Saharia

    Sitabari, linked by tradition with Sita and Valmiki, hosts the main annual gathering of the Saharia tribe of Baran. The Baneshwar fair is the major gathering of the Bhils.

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  33. Q.233

    Kuchamani Khyal, a popular form of open-air folk theatre with an operatic singing style, was developed by which artiste?

    1. A Bansidhar Bhatt
    2. B Shah Ali
    3. C Lachhiram
    4. D Nanuram
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Lachhiram

    Lachhiram of Kuchaman is credited with founding the Kuchamani Khyal. Nanuram of Chirawa is associated with the Shekhawati Khyal.

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  34. Q.234

    Which river crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice and has the Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam built on it in Banswara district?

    1. A Sabarmati
    2. B Som
    3. C Mahi
    4. D Jakham
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Mahi

    The Mahi rises in Madhya Pradesh, loops through Banswara and enters Gujarat to reach the Gulf of Khambhat, crossing the Tropic of Cancer twice. Som and Jakham are its tributaries.

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  35. Q.235

    Arrange the following monuments in the order in which they were built, earliest first: (A) Kirti Stambh, Chittorgarh (B) Vijay Stambh, Chittorgarh (C) Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (D) Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

    1. A B, A, C, D
    2. B A, B, D, C
    3. C B, A, D, C
    4. D A, B, C, D
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) A, B, C, D

    The Kirti Stambh dates from the 12th century, the Vijay Stambh from the 1440s, the Jaipur Jantar Mantar from the 1720s-1730s and the Hawa Mahal from 1799.

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  36. Q.236

    Sawai Jai Singh II built astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantar) at five places. Which of the following was NOT one of them?

    1. A Delhi
    2. B Ujjain
    3. C Varanasi
    4. D Agra
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Agra

    His observatories were at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura; the Mathura one no longer survives. Agra had none.

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  37. Q.237

    Who is regarded as the founder of Rathore rule in Marwar, whose memorial inscription of 1273 was found at Bithu?

    1. A Rao Chunda
    2. B Rao Jodha
    3. C Rao Ranmal
    4. D Rao Siha
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Rao Siha

    Rao Siha settled in the Pali region in the 13th century, and the Bithu inscription records his death in 1273. Rao Jodha founded Jodhpur much later, in 1459.

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  38. Q.238

    Which Chief Minister of Rajasthan held office continuously from 1954 to 1971, the longest tenure in the state's history?

    1. A Mohan Lal Sukhadia
    2. B Jai Narayan Vyas
    3. C Harideo Joshi
    4. D Barkatullah Khan
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    Correct answer: (A) Mohan Lal Sukhadia

    Mohan Lal Sukhadia, from Udaipur, served about 17 years (1954 to 1971) and is called the architect of modern Rajasthan. Barkatullah Khan succeeded him in 1971.

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  39. Q.239

    Hisamuddin Usta of Bikaner, honoured with the Padma Shri, was a master of which craft?

    1. A Blue pottery
    2. B Thewa jewellery
    3. C Gold-leaf (usta) work on camel hide
    4. D Meenakari enamelling
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Gold-leaf (usta) work on camel hide

    Usta art, raised gold-leaf painting on camel hide and other surfaces, is the famous craft of the Usta families of Bikaner, and Hisamuddin Usta was its best-known master. Meenakari is the enamelling craft of Jaipur.

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  40. Q.240

    'Vir Vinod', a detailed history of Mewar compiled under the patronage of Maharana Sajjan Singh, was written by whom?

    1. A Muhnot Nainsi
    2. B Kaviraj Shyamaldas
    3. C Suryamal Mishran
    4. D Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Kaviraj Shyamaldas

    Kaviraj Shyamaldas wrote 'Vir Vinod' in the late 19th century at the behest of Maharana Sajjan Singh. Muhnot Nainsi wrote 'Nainsi ri Khyat' in the 17th century.

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  41. Q.241

    In 'dabu' printing, practised at Bagru and Akola, which material is applied to stop the dye from reaching parts of the cloth?

    1. A A paste of mud (clay)
    2. B Melted wax
    3. C Tied knots of thread
    4. D Gold leaf
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) A paste of mud (clay)

    Dabu is a mud-resist technique: a paste of clay mixed with gum and lime is printed on the cloth so that those areas do not take the dye. Tying the cloth with thread before dyeing is the technique of bandhej.

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  42. Q.242

    At the battle of Khatoli (1517), Rana Sanga defeated which Sultan?

    1. A Sikandar Lodi
    2. B Muzaffar Shah II
    3. C Mahmud Khalji II
    4. D Ibrahim Lodi
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Ibrahim Lodi

    Sanga defeated Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi at Khatoli and again at Bari (Dholpur). He captured Mahmud Khalji II of Malwa in the battle of Gagron in 1519.

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  43. Q.243

    Who established Kachhwaha rule in the Dhundhar region, with Dausa as its first capital?

    1. A Dulharai
    2. B Kakil Dev
    3. C Prithviraj Kachhwaha
    4. D Bharmal
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Dulharai

    Dulharai (Dhola Rai), a Kachhwaha prince from Narwar, made Dausa the centre of the new Dhundhar state; his successors later moved the capital to Amber.

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  44. Q.244

    The Shahpura branch of the Ramsnehi sect, a nirguna Bhakti sect of the 18th century, was founded by which saint?

    1. A Dadu Dayal
    2. B Charan Das
    3. C Lal Das
    4. D Ram Charan
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Ram Charan

    Saint Ram Charan founded the Ramsnehi seat at Shahpura in the Bhilwara region; the sect's other seats are at Rain, Sinthal and Khedapa. Lal Das founded the Laldasi sect of Mewat.

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  45. Q.245

    In which folk dance of Rajasthan does a performer balance a tall stack of earthen pots on the head while dancing on the edge of a sword or the rim of a brass plate?

    1. A Chari
    2. B Kachchhi Ghodi
    3. C Terah Taali
    4. D Bhavai
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Bhavai

    Bhavai is an acrobatic dance of the Bhavai community of the Mewar region, known for balancing many pots on the head. Chari uses a single brass pot carrying a flame.

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  46. Q.246

    The Kachchhi Ghodi dance, in which male dancers wear dummy horses around their waists and stage mock fights, is especially associated with which region of Rajasthan?

    1. A Hadoti
    2. B Vagad
    3. C Mewat
    4. D Shekhawati
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (D) Shekhawati

    Kachchhi Ghodi is a popular wedding dance of the Shekhawati region (Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Churu), performed by professional communities. Hadoti, the Kota-Bundi region, is known for the Chakri dance.

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  47. Q.247

    Which lake at Mount Abu, overlooked by the Toad Rock, is said in legend to have been dug by the gods with their nails?

    1. A Gadisar
    2. B Nakki
    3. C Siliserh
    4. D Kaylana
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (B) Nakki

    Nakki lake (from 'nakh', nail) lies at Mount Abu in Sirohi district. Gadisar is in Jaisalmer and Kaylana in Jodhpur.

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  48. Q.248

    The name 'Matsya Union' for the first stage of Rajasthan's integration, recalling the ancient Mahajanapada of the region, was suggested by whom?

    1. A V. P. Menon
    2. B N. V. Gadgil
    3. C K. M. Munshi
    4. D Jawaharlal Nehru
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) K. M. Munshi

    K. M. Munshi suggested the name after the ancient Matsya kingdom of the region. The union was inaugurated at Bharatpur's Lohagarh fort on 18 March 1948.

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  49. Q.249

    Devotees sing 'Languriya' songs at the Lakkhi fair held in Chaitra at the temple of which goddess in Karauli district?

    1. A Kaila Devi
    2. B Shila Devi
    3. C Jeen Mata
    4. D Sakrai Mata
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (A) Kaila Devi

    The Kaila Devi fair in Chaitra Navratri is famous for the Languriya songs and dances of devotees. Shila Devi is the goddess of the temple in the Amber palace.

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  50. Q.250

    Meenakari, the art of enamelling on gold and silver, flourished in Jaipur after craftsmen were brought from Lahore by which ruler of Amber?

    1. A Sawai Jai Singh II
    2. B Raja Bharmal
    3. C Raja Man Singh I
    4. D Sawai Ram Singh II
    Show answer

    Correct answer: (C) Raja Man Singh I

    Raja Man Singh I, Akbar's general, is credited with bringing enamel craftsmen from Lahore to Amber. Sawai Ram Singh II is remembered for modernising Jaipur in the 19th century.

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