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Ancient and Medieval Indian History: key facts and practice questions

Revise Ancient and Medieval Indian History for SSC, Railway, police and state PSC exams: the facts and distinctions that keep coming up, a one-glance revision list, and 10 practice questions with answers and explanations.

Drafted with AI assistance and fact-checked on 2026-10-15; not yet read line by line by a human editor. Spotted a mistake? Tell us. Editorial standards & corrections

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Key concepts and facts

Indus Valley and the Vedic age: The Harappan civilisation (about 2600 to 1900 BC) was a Bronze Age urban culture with burnt bricks, grid-planned streets, covered drains and an undeciphered script, but no iron. Attach each site to its signature find: Mohenjo-daro has the Great Bath, the Pashupati seal and the bronze Dancing Girl; Harappa (excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921) has the granaries; Lothal has the dockyard; Kalibangan has a ploughed field and fire altars; Dholavira has water reservoirs and a large signboard. The Rigveda is the oldest Veda and contains the Gayatri Mantra and the Purusha Sukta; the Samaveda is the Veda of melodies. Rigvedic society was pastoral and tribal with assemblies called Sabha and Samiti; rigid caste and land taxes belong to the later Vedic age. The Upanishads, also called Vedanta, give us Satyameva Jayate from the Mundaka Upanishad.
Buddhism, Jainism and the Mahajanapadas: Gautama Buddha was born at Lumbini, enlightened at Bodh Gaya, preached first at Sarnath and died at Kushinagar. The four Buddhist councils were held at Rajgir (Ajatashatru), Vaishali (Kalashoka), Pataliputra (Ashoka) and Kundalvana in Kashmir (Kanishka, in the Sarvastivada tradition; the Theravada tradition counts a different fourth council, in Sri Lanka). The Tripitaka is the Vinaya (monastic rules), the Sutta (sermons) and the Abhidhamma (philosophy). Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, added Brahmacharya to the four vows of Parshvanatha, the 23rd, and died at Pavapuri. Jainism split into Digambara (Bhadrabahu) and Svetambara (Sthulabhadra); according to Jain tradition Bhadrabahu led Chandragupta Maurya to Shravanabelagola. The sixteen Mahajanapadas are listed in the Anguttara Nikaya; Magadha rose under Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Udayin, who made Pataliputra the capital (the fort at Pataligrama had first been built in Ajatashatru's time).
Mauryas and their successors: Chandragupta Maurya, guided by Chanakya (Kautilya, author of the Arthashastra), received Seleucus Nicator's envoy Megasthenes, who wrote the Indica. Ashoka's Kalinga war (c. 261 BC) and remorse are recorded in Rock Edict XIII; his personal name appears only in the Maski, Gujarra, Nittur and Udegolam minor edicts. The last Maurya, Brihadratha, was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga. Kanishka of the Kushanas, by tradition the founder of the Saka era of 78 AD (historians now place his accession at about 127 AD), patronised the Gandhara school. The Satavahanas are known through the Nasik inscription of Gautami Balashri, mother of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Rudradaman's Junagadh inscription is the first long Sanskrit inscription. Early Tamil literature gives us the Tolkappiyam (the oldest surviving Tamil grammar, of the Sangam tradition) and the later, post-Sangam works Tirukkural, Silappadikaram (Ilango Adigal) and Manimekalai (Sattanar).
Guptas, Harsha and the South: Samudragupta's conquests are described by Harisena in the Allahabad pillar; Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) hosted Fa-Hien and a court that, by the most popular tradition, included Kalidasa; Kumaragupta I is credited with founding Nalanda; Skandagupta repelled the Hunas. Aryabhata and Varahamihira (Brihat Samhita) were scientists of the Gupta age; Brahmagupta (born 598 AD) belongs to the later seventh-century period. Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda, was described by Banabhatta in the Harshacharita, hosted Hiuen Tsang, and was stopped at the Narmada by the Chalukya Pulakeshin II. In the south, the Pallava Mahendravarman I wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana and Narasimhavarman I built the Mahabalipuram rathas; the Rashtrakuta Krishna I built the Kailasa temple at Ellora and Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga; the Cholas are asked for their administration (Ur, Sabha, Nagaram, the Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I) and navy (Rajendra I's Srivijaya expedition).
Delhi Sultanate and regional kingdoms: The order is Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi. Iltutmish introduced the tanka and jital and the iqta system; Balban preached kingship as Zil-i-Ilahi with sijda and paibos; Alauddin Khalji introduced dagh, chehra and market control described by Barani; Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted the capital to Daulatabad and issued token currency; Firoz Tughlaq built canals and brought Ashokan pillars to Delhi; Sikandar Lodi founded Agra. Vijayanagara was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka, reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya (Amuktamalyada) and fell at Talikota in 1565; the rival Bahmani kingdom was founded by Hasan Gangu in 1347. The Bhakti movement runs from Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita) through Kabir, Ravidas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya; the Sufi Chishti order was brought to Ajmer by Moinuddin Chishti and the Suhrawardi order was based at Multan.
Mughals and Marathas: Babur won Panipat (1526, Ibrahim Lodi), Khanwa (1527, Rana Sanga). Sher Shah expelled Humayun and introduced the rupiya and repaired, widened and realigned the old Uttarapatha as the Sadak-e-Azam (the later Grand Trunk Road). Akbar won the second battle of Panipat (1556, Hemu), built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri, introduced the mansabdari system (zat and sawar ranks), and used Todar Mal's dahsala revenue system. Jahangir received Sir Thomas Roe; Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal, Delhi's Jama Masjid and the Peacock Throne; Aurangzeb reimposed jizya in 1679. Shivaji's Ashtapradhan included the Peshwa, Amatya, Sumant (foreign affairs) and Panditrao; he levied chauth and sardeshmukhi and signed the Treaty of Purandar with Jai Singh in 1665. Power later passed to the Peshwas, who were defeated at Panipat in 1761.
Traps students fall into: Do not confuse Fa-Hien (Chandragupta II) with Hiuen Tsang (Harsha), or Megasthenes (Chandragupta Maurya) with Ibn Battuta (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) and Abdur Razzaq (Devaraya II). Harshacharita is by Banabhatta, but Ratnavali is by Harsha himself. The Dancing Girl, Great Bath and Pashupati seal are all Mohenjo-daro, not Harappa. The first Buddhist council is at Rajgir, the first Jain council at Pataliputra. Alauddin introduced dagh and chehra; Sher Shah only revived them. Prinsep, not Cunningham, deciphered Ashoka's Brahmi script in 1837-38.

One-glance revision list

Site-find pairs: Mohenjo-daro (Great Bath, Pashupati seal, Dancing Girl), Lothal (dockyard), Kalibangan (ploughed field, fire altars), Dholavira (reservoirs, signboard), Rakhigarhi (largest site in India).
Buddha's life mnemonic L-B-S-K: Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon), Kushinagar (death). Symbols: lotus, Bodhi tree, wheel, stupa.
Four Buddhist councils, remember R-V-P-K: Rajgir (Ajatashatru), Vaishali (Kalashoka), Pataliputra (Ashoka), Kundalvana (Kanishka, Sarvastivada tradition).
Traveller-ruler pairs: Megasthenes-Chandragupta Maurya, Fa-Hien-Chandragupta II, Hiuen Tsang-Harsha, Al-Biruni-Mahmud of Ghazni, Ibn Battuta-Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Abdur Razzaq-Devaraya II, Thomas Roe-Jahangir, Bernier-Aurangzeb.
Ashoka's name appears only in the Maski, Gujarra, Nittur and Udegolam minor edicts; everywhere else he is Devanampiya Piyadasi. The Kalinga war is in Rock Edict XIII.
Author-book pairs: Kautilya-Arthashastra, Vishakhadatta-Mudrarakshasa, Harisena-Prayag Prashasti, Banabhatta-Harshacharita, Harsha-Ratnavali, Barani-Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Krishnadevaraya-Amuktamalyada, Abul Fazl-Akbarnama.
Chola self-government: the Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I describe the kudavolai (pot-ticket) method of choosing village committee members.
Sultanate firsts: Iltutmish (tanka, jital, iqta), Balban (sijda, paibos, Zil-i-Ilahi), Alauddin (dagh, chehra, market control), Muhammad bin Tughlaq (token currency, Daulatabad), Firoz (canals, Ashokan pillars to Delhi).
Battle chain: Panipat I 1526 (Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi), Khanwa 1527 (Babur vs Rana Sanga), Chausa 1539 and Kannauj 1540 (Sher Shah vs Humayun), Panipat II 1556 (Akbar vs Hemu), Haldighati 1576 (Man Singh vs Maharana Pratap), Talikota 1565 (Vijayanagara vs Deccan Sultans), Panipat III 1761 (Abdali vs Marathas).
Mansabdari: zat fixes personal rank and salary, sawar fixes the number of horsemen a mansabdar must maintain; Akbar introduced it, and Jahangir added the du-aspa sih-aspa rank.
Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of a territory; sardeshmukhi was an additional ten per cent claimed by Shivaji as hereditary sardeshmukh.
Bhakti philosophies: Shankara-Advaita, Ramanuja-Vishishtadvaita, Madhva-Dvaita, Vallabha-Shuddhadvaita; Jnaneshwar wrote the Jnaneshwari, Tulsidas the Ramcharitmanas.

Lessons in depth

10 longer lessons on Ancient and Medieval Indian History, one per sub-topic, each with its key facts and a quick revision.

Practice questions

Try each question before opening the answer.

1. The Great Bath, a large brick-lined public tank, was discovered at which Harappan site? (A) Harappa (B) Mohenjo-daro (C) Lothal (D) Kalibangan

Answer: (B) Mohenjo-daro. The Great Bath is the most famous structure of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh. Mohenjo-daro also yielded the Pashupati seal and the bronze Dancing Girl.

2. Which of the sixteen Mahajanapadas was a confederacy of clans (gana-sangha) with its capital at Vaishali? (A) Vajji (B) Kosala (C) Magadha (D) Kashi

Answer: (A) Vajji. Vajji (Vrijji) was a republican confederacy of eight clans including the Lichchhavis, with its capital at Vaishali. Kosala (Shravasti), Magadha (Rajgriha) and Kashi (Varanasi) were monarchies.

3. The famous Buddhist university at Nalanda is believed to have been founded by which Gupta ruler? (A) Ashoka (B) Harsha (C) Chandragupta II (D) Kumaragupta I

Answer: (D) Kumaragupta I. Nalanda Mahavihara was founded by Kumaragupta I (Shakraditya) in the fifth century AD. Harsha later patronised it generously, as Hiuen Tsang records, but did not found it.

4. Amuktamalyada, a Telugu work on polity and statecraft, was written by which Vijayanagara ruler? (A) Allasani Peddana (B) Vidyaranya (C) Krishnadevaraya (D) Tenali Ramakrishna

Answer: (C) Krishnadevaraya. Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529) wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu and Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit. Allasani Peddana was the chief of his Ashtadiggajas (eight court poets).

5. Which of the following pairs of foreign traveller and the ruler during whose time he visited India is correctly matched? (A) Fa-Hien - Harshavardhana (B) Hiuen Tsang - Chandragupta II (C) Al-Biruni - Mahmud of Ghazni (D) Ibn Battuta - Alauddin Khalji

Answer: (C) Al-Biruni - Mahmud of Ghazni. Al-Biruni came with Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote Kitab-ul-Hind. Fa-Hien visited under Chandragupta II, Hiuen Tsang under Harsha, and Ibn Battuta under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who made him qazi of Delhi.

6. Which deity, called Purandara (breaker of forts), has the largest number of hymns addressed to him in the Rigveda? (A) Indra (B) Agni (C) Varuna (D) Soma

Answer: (A) Indra. About 250 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to Indra, the war god and rain-bringer. Agni, the fire god, comes next with about 200 hymns.

7. According to Jain tradition, Mahavira attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge) under a sal tree near Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of which river? (A) Niranjana (B) Rijupalika (C) Hiranyavati (D) Sadanira

Answer: (B) Rijupalika. After twelve years of austerity, Mahavira attained Kaivalya at the age of 42 on the bank of the Rijupalika and came to be called Jina. The Buddha's enlightenment at Bodh Gaya took place near the Niranjana.

8. Which early Chola king is credited in Sangam tradition with founding the port of Puhar (Kaveripattinam) and building embankments along the Kaveri? (A) Senguttuvan (B) Nedunjeliyan (C) Rajaraja I (D) Karikala

Answer: (D) Karikala. Karikala, the best-known early Chola, is credited with Puhar and with flood embankments on the Kaveri, and the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) is traditionally attributed to him. Senguttuvan was a Chera king and Nedunjeliyan a Pandya.

9. The tripartite struggle of the eighth to tenth centuries among the Palas, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas was fought mainly for control of which city? (A) Pataliputra (B) Ujjain (C) Thanesar (D) Kannauj

Answer: (D) Kannauj. Kannauj in the Ganga valley, once Harsha's capital, was the symbol of supremacy in north India, so the three powers fought over it for about two centuries. The Gurjara-Pratiharas finally held it as their capital.

10. Raja Bhoja, the 11th-century scholar-king who ruled Malwa from his capital at Dhar, belonged to which dynasty? (A) Chandela (B) Chauhan (C) Paramara (D) Gahadavala

Answer: (C) Paramara. Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty was a great patron of learning and is credited with works such as the Samarangana Sutradhara on architecture. The Gahadavalas ruled from Kannauj and Varanasi.

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