Pariksha SaathiLesson 2 of 10 · Ancient and Medieval Indian History
The Vedic Age: Rigvedic and Later Vedic Periods
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Two phases and their sources
The Vedic Age is named after the Vedas, composed in Vedic Sanskrit and passed down orally long before they were written. Historians divide it into the Early or Rigvedic period (about 1500 to 1000 BC), when the Indo-Aryans lived in the land of seven rivers, Sapta Sindhu, in the north-west, and the Later Vedic period (about 1000 to 600 BC), when they spread into the Ganga plains. The Rigveda is the source for the first phase; the other three Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads describe the second, which archaeology links with the Painted Grey Ware of the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
The Vedic texts
The Rigveda has 10 mandalas and 1028 hymns. Mandalas 2 to 7, the family books, are the oldest, and mandala 10, with the Purusha Sukta that first names the four varnas, is the latest. The Gayatri Mantra, addressed to Savitri (the sun god) and composed by Vishvamitra, is in mandala 3, and mandala 9 is devoted to Soma. The Samaveda is a book of chants mostly drawn from the Rigveda and is the root of Indian music; the Yajurveda gives sacrificial formulas in two recensions, Shukla (white) and Krishna (black); the Atharvaveda holds charms, spells and folk medicine. The Brahmanas (such as the Aitareya and Shatapatha) explain rituals, the Aranyakas are forest texts, and the Upanishads, the philosophical end of the Vedas called Vedanta, discuss Brahman and Atman. The six Vedangas are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha.
Rivers of the Rigveda
The Indus (Sindhu) is the river mentioned most often, and the Saraswati, called naditama (best of rivers), the most revered. The Punjab rivers appear under older names: Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipas (Beas) and Shutudri (Sutlej); the Kubha (Kabul), Krumu (Kurram) and Gomati (Gomal) are western rivers. The Ganga is mentioned only once. The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna), told in mandala 7, was fought on the Parushni, where Sudas of the Bharata tribe defeated a confederacy of ten tribes.
Polity
Rigvedic polity was tribal. The tribe was the jana, and its chief, the rajan, was mainly a war leader and protector of cattle, helped by the purohita (priest) and the senani (army chief). Assemblies checked him: the Sabha (council of elders), the Samiti (general assembly of the people) and the Vidatha, the oldest; women attended the Sabha and the Vidatha. Bali was a voluntary offering. In the Later Vedic age tribes merged into territorial kingdoms (janapadas, rashtras), and the king proved his greater power through grand sacrifices: the Rajasuya (consecration), the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and the Vajapeya (chariot race). Bali became a compulsory tax, officials called ratnins appeared, the Vidatha disappeared and women were excluded from the Sabha. The Atharvaveda calls the Sabha and Samiti the two daughters of Prajapati.
Society and varna
The family was patriarchal and people prayed for sons and cattle. Varna, based on occupation, was not yet rigid in Rigvedic times; one hymn says the poet's father was a physician and his mother ground corn. Women had a respectable place: Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala and Vishvavara composed hymns, there was no child marriage, and widow remarriage and niyoga (levirate) were practised. In the Later Vedic age the four varnas hardened into hereditary groups with the Shudras at the bottom, the gotra system appeared, and women lost status and their place in the assemblies. The ashramas took shape; the Jabala Upanishad is usually cited as the first text to name all four: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and sannyasa.
Economy and the shift east
The Rigvedic people were mainly pastoral. Cattle were wealth, the word gavishti (search for cows) meant war, and they grew barley (yava) and knew copper or bronze (ayas). In the Later Vedic age agriculture became the main occupation, rice (vrihi) and wheat were grown, and iron, called krishna ayas or shyama ayas (black metal), came into use around 1000 BC and helped clear the forests of the Ganga valley. The Shatapatha Brahmana tells how Videgha Madhava followed the fire god Agni, who burned his way east up to the Sadanira (Gandak), and settled beyond it in Videha, a memory of the eastward spread. The Kurus, with their capital at Hastinapur, and the Panchalas became the leading peoples of the doab.
Religion
Rigvedic gods were forces of nature. Indra, the war god and rain-bringer called Purandara (breaker of forts), has about 250 hymns, the most of any god; Agni, the fire god and messenger between gods and men, has about 200; Varuna upheld rita, the cosmic order; and Soma was the god of a sacred drink. Worship was through prayers and simple sacrifices for cattle, sons and victory, without temples or idols. In the Later Vedic age Indra and Agni lost importance, Prajapati the creator became the chief god, Vishnu and Rudra rose, and sacrifices became elaborate and costly. The Upanishads reacted against this ritualism by stressing knowledge, preparing the ground for the reform movements of the sixth century BC.
Key facts
- Rigveda: 10 mandalas and 1028 hymns; Gayatri Mantra in mandala 3 (Vishvamitra, to Savitri); Purusha Sukta naming the four varnas in mandala 10; mandala 9 is on Soma.
- Rigvedic river names: Vitasta-Jhelum, Asikni-Chenab, Parushni-Ravi, Vipas-Beas, Shutudri-Sutlej, Kubha-Kabul, Krumu-Kurram, Gomati-Gomal; Sadanira is the Gandak.
- Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna): fought on the Parushni (Ravi) and won by Sudas of the Bharata tribe; described in mandala 7.
- Assemblies: Sabha (elders), Samiti (people), Vidatha (oldest; women attended); the Atharvaveda calls the Sabha and Samiti the two daughters of Prajapati.
- Later Vedic royal sacrifices: Rajasuya (consecration), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajapeya (chariot race); bali turned from voluntary gift to compulsory tax.
- Gods: Indra (about 250 hymns, called Purandara), Agni (about 200 hymns), Varuna (guardian of rita); Prajapati became the chief god in the Later Vedic age.
- Women who composed Rigvedic hymns: Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala and Vishvavara; the Jabala Upanishad is usually cited as the first to mention all four ashramas.
- Iron came into use around 1000 BC (krishna ayas or shyama ayas); Later Vedic culture matches the Painted Grey Ware of the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
- Six Vedangas: Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (metre), Jyotisha (astronomy).
Quick revision
Rigvedic age 1500-1000 BC in Sapta Sindhu, Later Vedic 1000-600 BC in the Ganga plains; Rigveda 10 mandalas, 1028 hymns; Gayatri Mantra in mandala 3, Purusha Sukta in mandala 10; Indus most mentioned river, Saraswati most revered, Ganga once; Dasarajna on the Parushni won by Sudas; Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha; bali voluntary then compulsory; Indra 250 hymns, Agni 200; iron around 1000 BC; Videgha Madhava to Videha; Jabala Upanishad names four ashramas.