Learning Disabilities, ADHD and Autism: Signs a Teacher Sees and Classroom Strategies

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What a learning disability is

A specific learning disability (SLD) is a neurological difference in how the brain takes in, processes or expresses information. The RPwD Act 2016 describes it as a group of conditions with a deficit in processing spoken or written language, shown as difficulty in understanding, speaking, reading, writing, spelling or calculating, and it names perceptual disabilities, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia and developmental aphasia. For CTET, three features matter: the child has average or above-average intelligence; the difficulty is specific (a child may explain a science experiment yet be unable to read the worksheet); and it is not caused by poor teaching, low effort, poverty or a problem of sight or hearing, though these must be ruled out. It is lifelong, but with the right strategies the child can succeed.

Dyslexia and dysgraphia

Dyslexia is a difficulty with reading that arises mainly from weak phonological processing, the linking of sounds to letters. A teacher sees slow, effortful reading, guessing a word from its first letter, confusion of b and d, p and q, or was and saw, losing the place or skipping lines, poor spelling, and good understanding when the same text is read aloud to the child. Strategies: multisensory phonics in which the child sees a letter, says its sound and traces it in sand (the visual-auditory-kinaesthetic-tactile or VAKT approach of the Fernald and Orton-Gillingham methods), reading aloud to the child, audio books, large print, extra time and oral tests. Dysgraphia is a difficulty with writing: an awkward grip, illegible letters of mixed size and spacing, very slow copying from the board, and a wide gap between what the child can say and write. Strategies: pencil grips, lined or squared paper, printed notes instead of copying, shorter written tasks, and oral, typed or drawn answers.

Dyscalculia and dyspraxia

Dyscalculia is a difficulty with number sense and arithmetic. The child may count on fingers long after classmates stop, confuse signs such as + and x, reverse digits (writing 21 for 12), misalign columns in addition, struggle with place value, and find telling time and handling money hard. Strategies: concrete materials such as beads, bundles of sticks and the abacus before symbols, the number line, squared paper to keep digits in columns, and short daily practice. Dyspraxia, also called developmental coordination disorder, affects the planning of movement: the child seems clumsy, bumps into things, finds buttons, shoelaces, scissors and ball games hard, and often writes untidily. Strategies: break movements into steps, allow extra time, give pencil grips and wide-ruled paper, and suggest an occupational therapist through the school.

ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder shows as inattention (careless mistakes, unfinished tasks, losing things, distractibility), hyperactivity (fidgeting, leaving the seat, talking excessively) and impulsivity (blurting out answers, not waiting for a turn). It is not itself a specific learning disability, but the two often occur together. Strategies: seat the child near the teacher and away from doors and windows, give one instruction at a time and check understanding, break work into short parts with a checklist, allow movement breaks or classroom jobs such as handing out books, praise good behaviour immediately and specifically, and keep routines predictable. Punishment and public scolding make the problem worse.

Autism spectrum disorder

Autism, first described by Leo Kanner in 1943, involves persistent difficulty in social communication and interaction together with restricted, repetitive behaviour and interests. A teacher may notice little eye contact, a preference for playing alone, difficulty with jokes and idioms (taking 'it is raining cats and dogs' literally), echolalia (repeating words just heard), distress at sudden changes, repetitive movements such as hand-flapping, strong reactions to noise, light or touch, and deep interest in one topic. Being a spectrum, it varies widely: some children do not speak, others are exceptionally able in particular areas. Strategies: a visual timetable, advance warning of any change, short and literal instructions, social stories that explain situations step by step, a quiet corner, using the child's special interest to motivate, and helping classmates include the child.

Learning disability, slow learning and learning difficulty

A slow learner learns every subject more slowly than classmates because general ability is below average, though not in the range of intellectual disability; the child needs more time, repetition, concrete examples and remedial teaching, and slow learning is not a category under the RPwD Act. A child with a learning disability has average or higher intelligence and an unexpected gap in one area. A learning difficulty is a broader, often temporary problem caused by outside factors such as long absence, an unfamiliar language of teaching or stress at home, and it eases when the cause is removed. Intellectual disability is different again: significant limits in both reasoning and adaptive behaviour beginning in childhood, conventionally with an IQ below about 70.

The teacher's role

The class teacher observes the child, keeps anecdotal records and work samples, uses diagnostic tests to find the pattern of errors, adapts her teaching, and refers the child for specialist assessment through the school and parents. She does not diagnose or label the child, and never calls him lazy, careless or dull.

Key facts

Dyslexia = reading (b/d and was/saw confusions, slow reading, poor spelling); dysgraphia = writing; dyscalculia = number and arithmetic; dyspraxia = planning of movement.
A child with a specific learning disability has average or above-average intelligence; the difficulty is in one area, not general.
VAKT (visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile) multisensory teaching underlies the Fernald and Orton-Gillingham methods for dyslexia.
Dyscalculia support: concrete materials (beads, bundles of sticks, abacus), the number line, squared paper to keep digits in columns.
Dyspraxia is also called developmental coordination disorder; the child seems clumsy and may need an occupational therapist.
ADHD = inattention + hyperactivity + impulsivity; seat near the teacher, one instruction at a time, short tasks, movement breaks, immediate praise.
ADHD is not itself a specific learning disability, but the two often occur together.
Autism (described by Leo Kanner, 1943): difficulty in social communication + restricted, repetitive behaviour; use a visual timetable, warn before changes, give literal instructions.
Echolalia (repeating words just heard) and distress at changes in routine are signs often seen in autism.
Slow learner: slow in all subjects, below-average general ability; learning disability: normal intelligence, difficulty in one area; learning difficulty: often temporary, caused by outside factors.

Quick revision

SLD: neurological, average or higher intelligence, difficulty in one area; dyslexia = reading (b/d), dysgraphia = writing, dyscalculia = maths, dyspraxia = movement (DCD); VAKT, Fernald, Orton-Gillingham; ADHD: inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, not an SLD but often co-occurs; autism (Kanner 1943): social communication + repetitive behaviour, visual timetable, echolalia; slow learner: slow in all subjects, not an RPwD category; learning difficulty often temporary; teacher observes and refers, never labels.

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All 6 lessons on Inclusive Education and Children with Special Needs