Pariksha SaathiPedagogy
CTET Child Development and Pedagogy (CDP) MCQ with Answers
298 practice questions on Child Development and Pedagogy for CTET Paper I and Paper II, with answers; most also have an explanation or a worked solution. Try each one before you open its answer.
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Q.201
Which of the following is an environmental factor that affects learning?
- A The child's state of health
- B The child's own interest and curiosity in the subject being taught
- C Lighting, ventilation and seating in the classroom
- D The child's present level of physical and mental maturation
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Lighting, ventilation and seating in the classroom
Physical conditions of the classroom belong to the learner's environment; health, interest and maturation are personal factors. Both kinds of factors together influence how well a child learns.
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Q.202
A teacher first demonstrates a problem, then solves one with the class, then gradually withdraws help until students solve problems alone. This is an example of
- A Rote drill
- B Scaffolding
- C Negative reinforcement
- D Programmed instruction
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Scaffolding
Scaffolding is temporary, adjustable support within the ZPD that is gradually withdrawn as the learner gains competence, a term associated with Vygotsky and Bruner.
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Q.203
In Parten's classification of social play, the most mature form, in which children take on roles and work together towards a shared goal such as putting on a puppet show, is
- A Cooperative play
- B Associative play
- C Solitary play
- D Parallel play
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Cooperative play
Cooperative play involves organisation, division of roles and a common aim, so it appears later than solitary, parallel and associative play. Associative play involves sharing and talking, but without a common goal or assigned roles.
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Q.204
During adolescence, which agent of socialisation usually gains strong influence over a young person's dress, language and leisure choices?
- A Family
- B Textbooks
- C Peer group
- D Religious institutions
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Peer group
In adolescence young people spend more time with friends and seek their acceptance, so the peer group strongly shapes tastes and behaviour. The family remains important, but its relative influence on such choices usually declines.
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Q.205
A 5-year-old is shown 7 roses and 3 lilies and asked, 'Are there more roses or more flowers?' She answers, 'More roses.' According to Piaget, she has not yet mastered
- A Object permanence
- B Class inclusion
- C Symbolic play
- D Language for naming objects
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Class inclusion
Class inclusion is understanding that a subclass (roses) is part of a larger class (flowers) and cannot outnumber it. Pre-operational children centre on the visible contrast between roses and lilies; class inclusion develops in the concrete operational stage.
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Q.206
Chomsky explained children's rapid acquisition of language by proposing an innate
- A Language Acquisition Device
- B Zone of Proximal Development
- C Schema of imitation
- D Reinforcement history
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Language Acquisition Device
Chomsky argued that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device and a universal grammar; behaviourists like Skinner had explained language through imitation and reinforcement.
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Q.207
A scoring guide that lists criteria and describes levels of performance for each criterion is called a
- A Portfolio
- B Rubric
- C Checklist
- D Cumulative record
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Rubric
A rubric makes assessment criteria transparent to students and reduces subjectivity in judging open-ended work like essays or projects.
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Q.208
A student who can easily classify plants and animals and notices patterns in nature shows high ability in which of Gardner's intelligences?
- A Spatial intelligence
- B Naturalistic intelligence
- C Logical-mathematical intelligence
- D Intrapersonal intelligence
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Naturalistic intelligence
Naturalistic intelligence, the eighth intelligence Gardner added, is the capacity to recognise and classify features of the natural world.
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Q.209
In Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, the settings in which a child directly takes part, such as the family, classroom, peer group and neighbourhood, make up the
- A Mesosystem
- B Exosystem
- C Macrosystem
- D Microsystem
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) Microsystem
The microsystem is the innermost layer: the people and places the child deals with face to face every day. The mesosystem is not a setting of its own but the links between these settings, such as contact between home and school.
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Q.210
Which of the following characteristics is determined almost entirely by heredity?
- A Mother tongue
- B Blood group
- C Food preferences
- D Religious beliefs
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Blood group
Blood group is fixed by the genes inherited from the parents and is not changed by upbringing. Mother tongue, food preferences and beliefs are acquired from the family and community, that is, from the environment.
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Q.211
According to Piaget, the move from heteronomous to autonomous morality is helped most by
- A Unquestioning obedience to parents, teachers and other adults
- B Strict physical punishment for every mistake
- C Memorising lists of moral rules from textbooks
- D Cooperation and give-and-take among peers of equal status
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) Cooperation and give-and-take among peers of equal status
Piaget held that the one-way (unilateral) respect young children feel for adults keeps rules external to them, while cooperation with equals, where rules must be negotiated, builds mutual respect and autonomous morality. Obedience and punishment keep the child dependent on authority.
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Q.212
The teacher praises Imran in front of the class for his neat notebook, and soon several other children start keeping neat notebooks. According to Bandura, the other children were influenced by
- A Classical conditioning
- B Vicarious reinforcement
- C Negative reinforcement
- D Trial and error learning
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Vicarious reinforcement
In vicarious reinforcement, learners become more likely to imitate a behaviour after seeing someone else rewarded for it. It is a key idea in Bandura's social learning theory.
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Q.213
Consider the statements: 1. Play is usually voluntary and is enjoyed for its own sake. 2. Play can help children express feelings that they cannot easily put into words. Which of these is/are correct?
- A Only 1
- B Only 2
- C Both 1 and 2
- D Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Both 1 and 2
Play is intrinsically motivated and valued for the activity itself rather than for an external reward. Through pretend play, drawing and games children also act out worries and feelings, which is why play is used in counselling young children.
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Q.214
'Learning by doing' and the idea of the school as a miniature society are associated with
- A John Dewey
- B Maria Montessori
- C Jean Piaget
- D B. F. Skinner
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) John Dewey
Dewey's pragmatic, progressive education stressed experience, activity and democracy in the classroom, seen in his Laboratory School at Chicago.
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Q.215
Bronfenbrenner added the 'chronosystem' to his model in order to take account of
- A The biological clock within the body that controls the timing of puberty and other growth spurts
- B The number of hours a child spends in school each day
- C The fixed order of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, which every child passes through
- D Changes over time, such as life transitions and historical events, that shape development
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) Changes over time, such as life transitions and historical events, that shape development
The chronosystem adds the dimension of time: events such as a parent's death, a family's migration, the birth of a sibling or a historical change such as a pandemic affect children differently depending on when they occur. It concerns timing and change in the child's world, not biological maturation alone.
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Q.216
During an art period a child carelessly knocks over water and paint across the table. Which response best reflects positive discipline through a logical consequence?
- A Ask the child to help clean the table and discuss how to avoid spills next time
- B Ban the child from art classes for a month
- C Scold the child in front of the whole class
- D Ignore it and clean the table yourself so that the lesson is not disturbed
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Ask the child to help clean the table and discuss how to avoid spills next time
A logical consequence is directly related to the behaviour and helps the child make amends and learn, as cleaning up the spill does. A month's ban has no clear link to the act and works as punishment, while ignoring it teaches nothing.
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Q.217
Which of the following is NOT a learner-centred way of managing a classroom?
- A Setting clear routines for moving into and out of groups
- B Arranging desks so that children can see and talk to each other during group work
- C Insisting on complete silence throughout every lesson
- D Rotating classroom responsibilities among all the children
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Insisting on complete silence throughout every lesson
A learner-centred classroom expects purposeful talk, movement and collaboration, so demanding total silence at all times works against active learning. Clear routines, seating suited to the activity and shared responsibilities support both order and learning.
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Q.218
The theory that intelligence consists of a general factor 'g' common to all tasks and specific factors 's' was proposed by
- A Thurstone
- B Guilford
- C Spearman
- D Sternberg
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Spearman
Spearman's two-factor theory (1904) proposed a general intelligence g plus task-specific s factors. Thurstone proposed primary mental abilities and Guilford the structure of intellect.
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Q.219
Consider the statements: 1. Emotional intelligence can be developed through experience and teaching. 2. A child with a high IQ will necessarily also have high emotional intelligence. Which of these is/are correct?
- A Only 1
- B Only 2
- C Both 1 and 2
- D Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Only 1
Goleman argued that emotional skills such as self-control and empathy can be learnt, which is why schools can teach them. IQ and emotional intelligence are distinct, so a child can be high in one and not in the other.
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Q.220
A teacher who has been speaking in a normal voice suddenly lowers it to a whisper, and the noisy class falls silent to listen. Which factor of attention is she mainly using?
- A Repetition of the same stimulus
- B Larger size of the stimulus
- C Change (contrast) in the stimulus
- D Fear of punishment
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Change (contrast) in the stimulus
A sudden change or contrast in a stimulus, such as in loudness, colour or pace, is one of the external factors that draw attention. Nothing was repeated or enlarged here, and no threat was used.
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Q.221
In a classroom with children from several linguistic and caste backgrounds, a teacher should
- A Treat diversity as a resource and build on each child's home language and experience
- B Seat children separately according to their community so that each group feels comfortable
- C Insist that only the school language be used at all times so that children learn it quickly
- D Lower expectations for children from disadvantaged groups
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Treat diversity as a resource and build on each child's home language and experience
NCF 2005 views the diversity of language, culture and community as a resource for learning. Segregation, suppressing the home language and lowered expectations are exclusionary.
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Q.222
Scolded by his teacher, a boy comes home and kicks his little brother's toys across the room. This defence mechanism is called
- A Sublimation of anger
- B Displacement
- C Projection
- D Regression
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Displacement
In displacement, feelings such as anger are shifted from a threatening target (the teacher) to a safer one (the brother's toys). Sublimation would instead channel the anger into a socially valued activity, such as sport.
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Q.223
Which of the following is NOT likely to develop intrinsic motivation to learn?
- A Giving children some choice in what they learn and how they learn it
- B Linking tasks to children's interests and everyday lives
- C Promising a prize to the child who scores the highest marks
- D Setting tasks that are challenging but achievable
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Promising a prize to the child who scores the highest marks
A prize for the top scorer is an extrinsic incentive that turns attention to marks and competition. Choice, relevance and the right level of challenge make learning satisfying in itself.
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Q.224
According to Piaget, children who have reached autonomous morality tend to prefer punishment that
- A Is as severe as possible, whatever the misdeed, so that it is never repeated
- B Is related to the misdeed and helps set things right
- C Is decided only by adults and is never questioned
- D Is given to the whole group for one child's mistake, as a lesson to all
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Is related to the misdeed and helps set things right
Piaget found that younger, heteronomous children favour severe 'expiatory' punishment, while autonomous children favour punishment by reciprocity, which fits the wrong done and restores what was harmed. The same idea lies behind logical consequences in positive discipline.
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Q.225
Sonu's mother is moved to a night shift at her factory, and Sonu now gets little help with his homework. In Bronfenbrenner's model, the mother's workplace, a setting Sonu never enters but which still affects him, is part of the
- A Exosystem
- B Microsystem
- C Mesosystem
- D Macrosystem
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Exosystem
The exosystem contains settings in which the child is not an active participant, such as a parent's workplace or local administrative bodies, but whose decisions reach the child indirectly. The microsystem is limited to settings the child takes part in directly.
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Q.226
An eight-month-old infant stops searching for a toy once it is hidden under a cloth. According to Piaget, the infant has not yet developed
- A Conservation of number
- B Object permanence
- C Reversibility
- D Seriation
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Object permanence
Object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight, develops during the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years).
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Q.227
Under the 5+3+3+4 curricular structure of NEP 2020, the Foundational Stage covers
- A Ages 6 to 11: Classes 1 to 5, the first five years of primary school
- B Ages 3 to 8: three years of Anganwadi/pre-school plus Classes 1-2
- C Ages 3 to 6: three years of Anganwadi/pre-school education only
- D Ages 8 to 11: Classes 3 to 5
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Ages 3 to 8: three years of Anganwadi/pre-school plus Classes 1-2
The Foundational Stage (ages 3-8) combines three years of Anganwadi/pre-school with Classes 1 and 2. Classes 3-5 (ages 8-11) form the Preparatory Stage, Classes 6-8 the Middle Stage and Classes 9-12 the Secondary Stage.
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Q.228
A Class 1 child who speaks only Santhali at home sits silently in a class where the teacher uses only Hindi, and is called 'slow'. The most likely reason for his difficulty is
- A Low intelligence that cannot be changed by any amount of teaching
- B The gap between his home language and the language of the classroom
- C Poor upbringing at home
- D Laziness and a lack of interest in studies, which calls for strict discipline
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) The gap between his home language and the language of the classroom
A child taught in an unfamiliar language cannot show what he knows; NCF 2005 and NEP 2020 ask schools to use the home language as a resource and a bridge. Calling him 'slow' blames the child for a gap the school has created.
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Q.229
Which of the following reflects Vygotsky's view of private speech (a child talking to herself while solving a task)?
- A It is a sign of immaturity that the teacher should stop so that the class stays quiet
- B It is egocentric speech, as Piaget held, that serves no purpose and simply disappears with age
- C It guides the child's thinking and later becomes internalised as inner speech
- D It shows that the child has a speech disorder
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) It guides the child's thinking and later becomes internalised as inner speech
Vygotsky regarded private speech as a tool for self-regulation that becomes silent inner speech. Piaget, by contrast, called it egocentric speech that fades away.
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Q.230
A newborn shows only a general state of excitement or distress. Over the following months, distinct emotions such as fear, anger and joy appear. Which principle of development does this illustrate?
- A Development proceeds from general to specific responses
- B Development proceeds from specific to general responses
- C Development proceeds from head downwards to the feet
- D Development depends only on learning, not on maturation
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Development proceeds from general to specific responses
Development moves from general, undifferentiated responses to specific, differentiated ones, so diffuse early excitement gradually separates into distinct emotions. Head-to-foot direction is the cephalocaudal principle, which describes motor control, not emotions.
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Q.231
'Learning is a social activity' implies that a teacher should
- A Keep children silent and working alone so that each one can concentrate
- B Encourage discussion, collaboration and peer learning
- C Rely entirely on lectures
- D Discourage children from questioning so that the lesson is finished on time
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Encourage discussion, collaboration and peer learning
Social constructivism (Vygotsky) holds that knowledge is built through interaction with others; group work and dialogue are therefore central to pedagogy.
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Q.232
Which of the following is a common criticism of Vygotsky's theory?
- A It ignores the role of language in thinking
- B It treats the child as a lone scientist who builds knowledge cut off from other people
- C The ZPD is hard to measure, and biology gets little attention
- D It claims that culture has no effect on the course of a child's cognitive development
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) The ZPD is hard to measure, and biology gets little attention
Critics note that the ZPD is difficult to measure exactly and that Vygotsky, who died young, said relatively little about biological development. The other options describe the opposite of his views, which stress language, culture and social interaction.
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Q.233
Which of the following is NOT an effective way to help students retain what they learn?
- A Asking students to recall material through short, low-stakes quizzes
- B Having students explain a topic to a classmate
- C Linking new ideas to what students already know
- D Memorising answers word for word without understanding them
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) Memorising answers word for word without understanding them
Material learnt by rote without understanding is quickly forgotten and hard to use. Retrieval practice, teaching others and connecting new ideas to prior knowledge all make memories stronger and easier to recall.
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Q.234
Each member of a group studies a different part of a lesson, meets members of other groups who studied the same part, and then returns to teach it to their own group. This cooperative learning strategy is called
- A Brainstorming
- B Role play
- C Jigsaw
- D Panel discussion
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Jigsaw
In the jigsaw technique every member holds one piece of the whole, so the group depends on each child teaching and learning from the others. It builds individual accountability and positive interdependence.
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Q.235
Asha studies a chapter because she wants to understand it fully; Ravi studies it mainly to score more than his classmates. Asha's approach shows a
- A Performance (ego-involved) goal orientation
- B Mastery (learning) goal orientation
- C Fixed mindset
- D External locus of control
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Mastery (learning) goal orientation
Learners with mastery goals focus on understanding and improving, which supports deeper learning and persistence. Ravi's aim of outdoing others is a performance goal.
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Q.236
To help Class 3 children form the concept of 'insect', which approach is most effective?
- A Ask children to memorise the textbook definition of an insect and write it out three times
- B Show one picture of an ant and say that it is an insect
- C Show examples and non-examples (e.g. a spider, an earthworm) and let children find common features
- D Tell children that all small creatures that crawl on the ground, such as ants, spiders and worms, are insects
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Show examples and non-examples (e.g. a spider, an earthworm) and let children find common features
Concepts form when children compare varied examples, notice the shared defining features (six legs, three body parts) and use non-examples to see the concept's boundaries. A single example or a memorised definition gives a narrow or empty concept, and the last option creates a misconception.
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Q.237
Under the RTE Act 2009, which statement is correct about a teacher who subjects a child to physical punishment or mental harassment?
- A No action can be taken against the teacher unless the child is seriously injured
- B The teacher must pay the child's school fees for a year as a penalty
- C Action can be taken only if the child is below 10 years of age
- D The teacher is liable to disciplinary action under the applicable service rules
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) The teacher is liable to disciplinary action under the applicable service rules
The Act not only prohibits physical punishment and mental harassment but also makes anyone who does so liable to disciplinary action under the applicable service rules. The ban protects all the children the Act covers, whatever their age or the extent of any injury.
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Q.238
To study memory without the help of meaning, Hermann Ebbinghaus memorised lists of
- A Well-known poems and stories
- B Pictures of everyday objects such as cups and keys
- C Nonsense syllables like 'ZOF' and 'KEB'
- D Mathematical formulae
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Nonsense syllables like 'ZOF' and 'KEB'
Ebbinghaus used meaningless consonant-vowel-consonant syllables so that earlier knowledge would not affect how fast he learnt and forgot. Meaningful material is learnt and kept far more easily, which is why teachers link new ideas to what children already know.
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Q.239
A Class 3 teacher meets parents regularly so that home and school support a child's reading in the same way. In Bronfenbrenner's model, this connection between home and school belongs to the
- A Mesosystem
- B Microsystem
- C Exosystem
- D Chronosystem
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Mesosystem
The mesosystem consists of the interactions between two or more of the child's microsystems, here the family and the school. Strong, cooperative links between them support the child better than either setting acting alone.
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Q.240
In a Class 5, some children read fluently while others are still sounding out simple words. The best way for the teacher to address these differences is to
- A Plan tasks at different levels and use flexible groups
- B Teach the whole class at one pace using the same worksheet
- C Seat the slower readers at the back of the class so they do not disturb others
- D Send the slower readers to a lower class
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) Plan tasks at different levels and use flexible groups
Differentiated instruction adapts tasks and support to children's different levels, and flexible groups change as children progress. A single pace for all leaves some children bored and others lost.
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Q.241
Parents give dolls and kitchen sets only to their daughter, and cars and toy guns only to their son. This is an example of
- A Biological determination of boys' and girls' interests
- B Gender role socialisation within the family
- C Inclusive play practice
- D Development proceeding from general to specific
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Gender role socialisation within the family
Children learn what is considered 'appropriate' for their gender through the toys, tasks and expectations adults give them. Such gendered socialisation begins at home and shapes later interests and choices.
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Q.242
Guilford's structure of intellect model classifies intellectual abilities along three dimensions, namely
- A Analytical, creative and practical
- B Operations, contents and products
- C Fluid, crystallised and general ability
- D Verbal, numerical and spatial
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Operations, contents and products
Guilford's cube-shaped model has operations, contents and products as its three dimensions; analytical, creative and practical belong to Sternberg's triarchic theory.
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Q.243
According to Vygotsky, higher mental functions such as voluntary attention, logical memory and concept formation
- A Unfold automatically through biological maturation, whatever the child's social setting
- B Are fully present at birth
- C First appear in social interaction and are then internalised by the child
- D Develop mainly through reinforcement by the rewards and punishments that parents and teachers give
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) First appear in social interaction and are then internalised by the child
Vygotsky stated that every function in a child's cultural development appears twice: first between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). Learning therefore begins in shared activity and talk.
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Q.244
To study how children understand rules, Piaget mainly
- A Presented the Heinz dilemma to adolescents and adults
- B Conducted conditioning experiments with animals
- C Watched children play marbles and asked where the rules came from and whether they could change
- D Gave large groups of children a standardised written test of moral knowledge and scored their answers
Show answer
Correct answer: (C) Watched children play marbles and asked where the rules came from and whether they could change
In 'The Moral Judgment of the Child' Piaget observed and questioned children playing marbles, and also told them pairs of stories about wrongdoing. The Heinz dilemma belongs to Kohlberg, who later built his six-stage theory on Piaget's work.
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Q.245
A 'prepared environment', self-correcting didactic apparatus and training of the senses are the hallmarks of the method of
- A Friedrich Froebel
- B Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- C John Dewey
- D Maria Montessori
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) Maria Montessori
Montessori's method (Casa dei Bambini, 1907) uses child-sized materials that allow auto-education with minimal adult intervention.
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Q.246
A teacher tells a crying boy, 'Boys don't cry. Be strong like a man.' This remark
- A Builds the boy's resilience and helps him cope with difficulties on his own
- B Reinforces a gender stereotype and discourages expressing feelings
- C Is appropriate because boys are by nature less emotional than girls are
- D Has no effect on how children understand gender
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Reinforces a gender stereotype and discourages expressing feelings
Expressing emotion is human, not tied to gender; telling boys not to cry teaches that showing feelings is unmanly. A gender-sensitive teacher accepts every child's feelings and helps them manage those feelings.
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Q.247
Class 4 children ask why their shadows are long in the morning, short at noon and long again in the evening. The best response of the teacher is to
- A Explain the answer and have them copy it into their notebooks so they can revise it later
- B Help them observe and measure their shadows at different times and discuss what they find
- C Tell them the topic is not in their syllabus
- D Ask them to wait until they study the earth's rotation and the sun's movement in a higher class
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Help them observe and measure their shadows at different times and discuss what they find
Children are natural investigators; observing, measuring and reasoning from evidence builds both understanding and the habit of inquiry. Giving the answer directly or postponing the question discourages curiosity.
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Q.248
A child becomes so anxious in mathematics class that she cannot answer even questions she knows. The teacher should first
- A Make her solve problems on the board in front of the whole class every day until the fear goes
- B Reduce fear by creating a supportive, non-threatening atmosphere and build her confidence step by step
- C Tell her firmly that there is nothing to be afraid of
- D Excuse her from mathematics lessons
Show answer
Correct answer: (B) Reduce fear by creating a supportive, non-threatening atmosphere and build her confidence step by step
Anxiety blocks attention and recall, so lowering threat and building small successes restores her ability to think. Forced public performance can deepen the fear, and excusing her denies her learning.
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Q.249
Match each of Gardner's intelligences with the person most likely to display it: (A) Linguistic (B) Spatial (C) Bodily-kinaesthetic (D) Musical. 1. A sculptor who visualises forms 2. A poet 3. A composer 4. A dancer
- A A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
- B A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
- C A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
- D A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
Show answer
Correct answer: (D) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
Linguistic intelligence shows in poets, spatial in sculptors and navigators, bodily-kinaesthetic in dancers and athletes, and musical in composers.
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Q.250
The problem-solving method, in which pupils face a real problem, suggest possible solutions, test them and draw conclusions, is based most directly on the ideas of
- A John Dewey
- B B. F. Skinner
- C Ivan Pavlov
- D Friedrich Froebel
Show answer
Correct answer: (A) John Dewey
Dewey described reflective thinking as a series of steps: sensing a difficulty, defining it, suggesting solutions, reasoning about them and testing them in action. This became the basis of the problem-solving method.
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Authored by an AI assistant (Claude) from its own general knowledge of stable, well-established facts (no live lookup) - not reviewed by a subject-matter expert; verify against an official source before relying on any fact.