Pariksha SaathiLesson 9 of 10 · Indian Art and Culture
Indian Philosophy, Religious Texts, Fairs, Festivals and the National Calendar
Drafted with AI assistance and fact-checked on 28 October 2026; not yet read line by line by a human editor. Spotted a mistake? Tell us. Editorial standards & corrections
The six orthodox schools
Indian philosophy is divided into astika schools, which accept the authority of the Vedas, and nastika schools, which do not. The six astika darshanas form three pairs. Nyaya (Gautama) is the school of logic and valid knowledge, and Vaisheshika (Kanada) explains the world through atoms (paramanu). Samkhya (Kapila), usually regarded as the oldest, is a dualism of spirit (purusha) and matter (prakriti), and Yoga (Patanjali) adds the eightfold practice of yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi in the Yoga Sutra. Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini) defends Vedic ritual and duty, and Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta rests on Badarayana's Brahma Sutra and the Upanishads. Vedanta later divided into the Advaita (non-dualism) of Adi Shankaracharya, who founded mathas at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Jyotirmath, the Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja, the Dvaita of Madhva and the Shuddhadvaita of Vallabha. The nastika schools are Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka (Lokayata) materialism and the fatalism of the Ajivikas.
Buddhist and Jain texts
The Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka, is in Pali: the Vinaya Pitaka holds the monastic rules, recited by Upali at the first council at Rajagriha; the Sutta Pitaka holds the discourses, recited by Ananda, and includes the Dhammapada and the Jataka tales; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka holds philosophy, which tradition says was completed at the third council at Pataliputra under Ashoka. The Milindapanho records King Menander's questions to the monk Nagasena, and Ashvaghosha's Buddhacharita, in Sanskrit, belongs to Kanishka's age. Jain scripture, the Agamas, is in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit and was written down at the council of Vallabhi in Gujarat; the Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu gives the lives of the Tirthankaras. Jainism's three jewels are right faith, right knowledge and right conduct, and Mahavira added brahmacharya to Parshvanatha's four vows.
Festivals through the year
Mid-January brings harvest festivals as the Sun enters Capricorn: Makar Sankranti, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Lohri in Punjab, Magh (Bhogali) Bihu in Assam and Uttarayan kite-flying in Gujarat. Spring brings Vasant Panchami and Holi, and the new year falls in Chaitra as Ugadi in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Gudi Padwa in Maharashtra and Cheti Chand for Sindhis; mid-April brings Baisakhi in Punjab, Rongali Bihu in Assam, Vishu in Kerala, Puthandu in Tamil Nadu and Pohela Boishakh in Bengal. The monsoon has the Rath Yatra of Puri, Teej in Rajasthan, Onam in Kerala, which welcomes King Mahabali, Nuakhai in Odisha and Ganesh Chaturthi, made a public festival by Tilak in 1893. Autumn brings Navratri, Durga Puja in Bengal, Dussehra (famous at Mysuru and Kullu), Bathukamma in Telangana, Diwali and Chhath in Bihar. Nagaland's Hornbill Festival is held in December, and Losar, the Tibetan new year, is celebrated in Ladakh and Sikkim.
The Kumbh Mela
The Kumbh Mela, a mass pilgrimage of ritual bathing, rotates among four places where, in legend, drops of amrit fell during the churning of the ocean: Haridwar on the Ganga, Prayagraj at the Sangam of the Ganga, the Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati, Ujjain on the Shipra, and Nashik on the Godavari. Each place holds it about every 12 years, its date set by the positions of Jupiter, the Sun and the Moon; the Ujjain and Nashik melas are called Simhastha because Jupiter is then in Leo, and an Ardh Kumbh is held at Haridwar and Prayagraj in between.
Great fairs
The Pushkar fair in Rajasthan and the Sonepur fair at the meeting of the Gandak and the Ganga in Bihar are both held at Kartik Purnima. The Gangasagar Mela on Sagar Island (West Bengal) is held at Makar Sankranti where the Ganga meets the sea; the Ambubachi Mela is held at the Kamakhya temple in Guwahati in the monsoon; the Shravani Mela sees pilgrims carry Ganga water from Sultanganj to Baidyanath at Deoghar; and the Baneshwar fair of the Bhil tribe is held in Dungarpur (Rajasthan) at Magh Purnima.
The national calendar
On the advice of the Calendar Reform Committee headed by Meghnad Saha, India adopted the Saka calendar as its national calendar from 22 March 1957, alongside the Gregorian calendar. The Saka era begins in 78 CE, so the Saka year is the Gregorian year minus 78 for most of the year. Its first month is Chaitra, which begins on 22 March (21 March in a leap year); it is used in the Gazette of India, news broadcasts of All India Radio and government calendars. The Vikram Samvat, used in north India, begins in 57 BCE.
Key facts
- Six darshanas in pairs: Nyaya (Gautama) - Vaisheshika (Kanada, atoms); Samkhya (Kapila, purusha-prakriti) - Yoga (Patanjali, eight limbs); Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini) - Vedanta (Badarayana).
- Vedanta schools: Advaita - Shankaracharya; Vishishtadvaita - Ramanuja; Dvaita - Madhva; Shuddhadvaita - Vallabha. Shankara's mathas: Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Jyotirmath.
- Tripitaka (Pali): Vinaya (rules, Upali), Sutta (discourses, Ananda; includes Jatakas and Dhammapada), Abhidhamma (philosophy). Milindapanho: Menander and Nagasena.
- Jain Agamas in Ardha-Magadhi, written down at Vallabhi; Kalpasutra by Bhadrabahu; Mahavira added brahmacharya as the fifth vow.
- Mid-January harvest: Pongal (Tamil Nadu), Lohri (Punjab), Magh Bihu (Assam), Uttarayan (Gujarat), Makar Sankranti across India.
- New year festivals: Ugadi (Karnataka, Andhra, Telangana), Gudi Padwa (Maharashtra), Cheti Chand (Sindhis); mid-April: Baisakhi, Rongali Bihu, Vishu, Puthandu, Pohela Boishakh.
- Kumbh cities and rivers: Haridwar-Ganga, Prayagraj-Sangam, Ujjain-Shipra, Nashik-Godavari; Ujjain and Nashik melas are called Simhastha.
- Fairs: Pushkar (Rajasthan) and Sonepur (Bihar) at Kartik Purnima; Gangasagar at Makar Sankranti; Ambubachi at Kamakhya; Shravani Mela at Deoghar; Baneshwar at Dungarpur.
- National calendar: Saka era from 78 CE, adopted from 22 March 1957 on the Meghnad Saha committee's advice; first month Chaitra; Vikram Samvat begins 57 BCE.
Quick revision
Astika darshanas: Nyaya-Gautama, Vaisheshika-Kanada, Samkhya-Kapila, Yoga-Patanjali, Mimamsa-Jaimini, Vedanta-Badarayana; Advaita-Shankara, Vishishtadvaita-Ramanuja, Dvaita-Madhva; Tripitaka in Pali (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma); Jain Agamas Ardha-Magadhi, Vallabhi; Pongal, Lohri, Bihu; Onam (Mahabali); Kumbh: Haridwar, Prayagraj, Ujjain (Shipra), Nashik (Godavari); Pushkar, Sonepur at Kartik Purnima; Saka calendar from 22 March 1957, era 78 CE.